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This cooling effect on the ocean surface usually lasts for several years as the lifetime of sulfate aerosols is about 2–3 years. [1] However, in the subsurface ocean the cooling signal may persist for a longer time and may have impacts on some decadal variabilities, such as the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC). [1] [2]
Satellite view of a pumice raft from an undersea eruption in Tonga. Volcanic eruptions can have various impacts on maritime transportation. When a volcano erupts, large amounts of noxious gases, steam, rock, and ash are released into the atmosphere; fine ash can be transported thousands of miles from the volcano, while high concentrations of coarse particles fall out of the air near the ...
A wide variety of volcanic processes can produce tsunamis. This includes volcanic earthquakes, caldera collapse, explosive submarine eruptions, the effects of pyroclastic flows and lahars on water, base surges with accompanying shock waves, lava avalanching into the sea, air waves from explosive subaerial eruptions, avalanches of cold rock, and avalanches of hot material. [1]
The volcanoes at mid-ocean ridges alone are estimated to account for 75% of the magma output on Earth. [1] Although most submarine volcanoes are located in the depths of seas and oceans, some also exist in shallow water, and these can discharge material into the atmosphere during an eruption.
People living in the Southern Hemisphere experienced purple sunsets for a few months after the eruption. A cooling effect of 0.1–0.5 °C (0.18–0.90 °F) was expected to last until spring (September–November) 2022. [55] The eruption was described as a once-in-a-thousand-year event for the Hunga caldera. [56] [57] [58]
1 Japan: 1991 [39] 40 Dieng Volcanic Complex: 2 Indonesia: 1928 [30] 39 Taal: 4 Philippines: 2020 2020–2022 Taal Volcano eruptions: 38 Dieng Volcanic Complex: 2 Indonesia: 1786 [30] 32 Mount Nyiragongo: 1 Democratic Republic of the Congo: 2021 2021 Mount Nyiragongo eruption: 32 Kelud: 4 Indonesia: 1990 [40] 31 Bayonnaise Rocks: 2 Japan: 1952 ...
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In 2010, the Japanese coast guard spotted steam rising one kilometer (0.62 mi) above the ocean and water discoloration of the surrounding area. [1] In 2021, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) reported that a submarine eruption occurred at Fukutoku-Okanoba volcano at 6:20 a.m. local time on August 13. [ 4 ]