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  2. History of chemistry - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry

    The Gibbs free energy relates the tendency of a physical or chemical system to simultaneously lower its energy and increase its disorder, or entropy, in a spontaneous natural process. Gibbs's approach allows a researcher to calculate the change in free energy in the process, such as in a chemical reaction, and how fast it will happen.

  3. Classical element - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_element

    They were seen by early alchemists as idealized expressions of irreducible components of the universe [41] and are of larger consideration within philosophical alchemy. The three metallic principles—sulphur to flammability or combustion, mercury to volatility and stability, and salt to solidity—became the tria prima of the Swiss alchemist ...

  4. Hermeticism - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeticism

    "Theurgy" translates to the "science or art of divine works" and is the practical aspect of the Hermetic art of alchemy. [68] Furthermore, alchemy is seen as the "key" to theurgy, [69] the ultimate goal of which is to become united with higher counterparts, leading to the attainment of divine consciousness. [68]