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The glycosaminoglycan side chains are polyanionic, which causes adjacent side chains to push each other away and create a "bottle brush", where hyaluronic acid is the stem and the side chains are the bristles. When pressure is exerted on the joint, fluids move between the chondrocytes and synovial fluid, exchanging nutrients. [4]
Heparin, also known as unfractionated heparin (UFH), is a medication and naturally occurring glycosaminoglycan. [3] [4] Heparin is a blood anticoagulant that increases the activity of antithrombin. [5] It is used in the treatment of heart attacks and unstable angina. [3] It can be given intravenously or by injection under the skin. [3]
A 2020 meta-analysis found that intra-articular injection of high molecular weight HA improved both pain and function in people with knee osteoarthritis. [26] Hyaluronic acid has been used to treat dry eye. [27] Hyaluronic acid is a common ingredient in skin care products. Hyaluronic acid is used as a dermal filler in cosmetic surgery. [28]
The repeating two-sugar unit consists of a uronic sugar and an amino sugar, except in the case of the sulfated glycosaminoglycan keratan, where, in place of the uronic sugar there is a galactose unit. [3] GAGs are found in vertebrates, invertebrates and bacteria. [4]
Chondroitin sulfate is a sulfated glycosaminoglycan (GAG) [1] composed of a chain of alternating sugars (N-acetylgalactosamine and glucuronic acid). It is usually found attached to proteins as part of a proteoglycan. [1] A chondroitin chain can have over 100 individual sugars, each of which can be sulfated in variable positions and quantities.
Sodium hyaluronate is the sodium salt of hyaluronic acid.It is a glycosaminoglycan and long-chain polymer of disaccharide units of Na-glucuronate-N-acetylglucosamine. It can bind to specific receptors for which it has a high affinity.
Dermatan sulfate is a glycosaminoglycan (formerly called a mucopolysaccharide) found mostly in skin, but also in blood vessels, heart valves, tendons, and lungs. It is also referred to as chondroitin sulfate B, [1] although it is no longer classified as a form of chondroitin sulfate by most sources. The formula is C 14 H 21 NO 15 S.
The low molecular weight of both sulodexide fractions allows for extensive oral absorption compared to unfractionated heparin.The pharmacological effects of sulodexide differ substantially from other glycosaminoglycans and are mainly characterized by a prolonged half-life and reduced effect on global coagulation and bleeding parameters. [1]