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Four motor symptoms are considered cardinal signs in PD: slowness of movement (bradykinesia), tremor, rigidity, and postural instability. [1] Typical for PD is an initial asymmetric distribution of these symptoms, where in the course of the disease, a gradual progression to bilateral symptoms develops, although some asymmetry usually persists.
Parkinsonism is a clinical syndrome characterized by the four motor symptoms found in Parkinson's disease: tremor, bradykinesia (slowed movements), rigidity, and postural instability. [1] [2] Parkinsonism gait problems can lead to falls and serious physical injuries. Other common symptoms include:
Hypokinetic movement disorders fall into one of four subcategories: akinesia (lack of movement), hypokinesia (reduced amplitude of movements), bradykinesia (slow movement), and rigidity. In primary movement disorders, the abnormal movement is the primary manifestation of the disorder.
Parkinson-plus syndromes (PPS) are a group of neurodegenerative [1] diseases featuring the classical features of Parkinson's disease (tremor, rigidity, akinesia/bradykinesia, and postural instability) with additional features that distinguish them from simple idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD).
In general, research for treatment of hyperkinesia has most recently been focusing on ameliorating symptoms rather than attempting to correct the pathogenesis of the disease. Therefore, now and in the future it may be beneficial to inform the learning of the disease's pathology through carefully controlled, long-term, observation-based studies.
This treatment has been shown to reduce hypokinesia in animal studies when increasing nociception FQ in the substantia nigra and subthalamic nucleus. Low doses can be taken with dopaminergic treatment to decrease the amount of L-dopa needed, which can reduce its long-term side effects and improve motor performance.
Bradyphrenia is the slowness of thought common to many disorders of the brain. [1] Disorders characterized by bradyphrenia include Parkinson's disease and forms of schizophrenia consequently causing a delayed response and fatigue. [2]
Benzatropine is also a second-line drug for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. It improves tremor, and may alleviate rigidity and bradykinesia. [10] Benzatropine is also sometimes used for the treatment of dystonia, a rare disorder that causes abnormal muscle contraction, resulting in twisting postures of limbs, trunk, or face.