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In the case of women's representation in government, it says that sex stereotyping begins at an early age and affects the public's disposition on which genders are fit for public office. Socialization agents can include family, school, higher education, mass media, and religion. [87]
A gender quota is a quota used by countries and parties to increase women's representation or substantive equality based on gender in legislatures. [1] Women are largely underrepresented in parliaments and account for a 26.9% average in parliaments globally. [2] As of November 2021, gender quotas have been adopted in 132 countries. [3]
The purpose of implementing gender quotas, is to recruit women into political positions and to ensure that there is equal representation in policy [32] Gender quotas rule that women must constitute a certain number or percentage of a body of government. [32]
Feminist economists also examine early economic thinkers' interaction or lack of interaction with gender and women's issues, showing examples of women's historical engagement with economic thought. For example, Edith Kuiper discusses Adam Smith's engagement with feminist discourse on the role of women in the eighteenth century France and ...
During the early years of public administration, textbooks and curriculum largely overlooked minorities and dismissed contributions that reflected women's experience. The later 1900s brought heightened sensitivity of these issues to the forefront, with shifts in public opinion producing the Civil Rights Act, equal opportunity initiatives, and job protection laws.
Women's participation in economics is lower than in any other social science. By many measures, the gender gap in economics is the largest of any discipline. For example, women received about 30% of doctorate and bachelor's degrees in economics in 2014, compared with 45% to 60% of degrees in business, humanities, and the STEM fields. [16]
One 1999 study found: "[the] electoral system structure, left party government, the timing of women's suffrage, the share of women in professional occupations, and cultural attitudes toward the role of women in politics each play a role in accounting for variation in the degree of gender inequality in political representation around the world ...
The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) is an index designed to measure gender equality.GEM is the United Nations Development Programme's attempt to measure the extent of gender inequality across the globe's countries, based on estimates of women's relative economic income, participation in high-paying positions with economic power, and access to professional and parliamentary positions.