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The earliest vacuum tubes evolved from incandescent light bulbs, containing a filament sealed in an evacuated glass envelope. When hot, the filament in a vacuum tube (a cathode) releases electrons into the vacuum, a process called thermionic emission. This can produce a controllable unidirectional current though the vacuum known as the Edison ...
They are a widely used source of microwave energy, and virtually the only solid-state source of millimeter wave [132] and terahertz energy [129] Negative resistance microwave vacuum tubes such as magnetrons produce higher power outputs, [117] in such applications as radar transmitters and microwave ovens.
The field strength of vacuum energy is a concept proposed in a theoretical study that explores the nature of the vacuum and its relationship to gravitational interactions. The study derived a mathematical framework that uses the field strength of vacuum energy as an indicator of the bulk (spacetime) resistance to localized curvature.
Thermionic vacuum tubes emit electrons from a hot cathode into an enclosed vacuum and may steer those emitted electrons with applied voltage. The hot cathode can be a metal filament, a coated metal filament, or a separate structure of metal or carbides or borides of transition metals.
According to the theory of the Dirac sea, developed by Paul Dirac in 1930, the vacuum of space is full of negative energy. This theory was developed to explain the anomaly of negative-energy quantum states predicted by the Dirac equation. A year later, after work by Weyl, the negative energy concept was abandoned and replaced by a theory of ...
Vacuum became a valuable industrial tool in the 20th century with the introduction of incandescent light bulbs and vacuum tubes, and a wide array of vacuum technologies has since become available. The development of human spaceflight has raised interest in the impact of vacuum on human health, and on life forms in general.
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A problem in early vacuum tubes was secondary emission; electrons striking the plate could knock other electrons out of the metal surface.In some tubes such as tetrodes these secondary electrons could be absorbed by other electrodes such as grids in the tube, resulting in a current out of the plate.