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It is frequently used to transform the antiderivative of a product of functions into an antiderivative for which a solution can be more easily found. The rule can be readily derived by integrating the product rule of differentiation. If u = u(x) and du = u ′ (x) dx, while v = v(x) and dv = v ′ (x) dx, then integration by parts states that:
The key is that when one regards X 1 ∂f / ∂u + X 2 ∂f / ∂v as a ℝ 3-valued function, its differentiation along a curve results in second partial derivatives ∂ 2 f; the Christoffel symbols enter with orthogonal projection to the tangent space, due to the formulation of the Christoffel symbols as the tangential ...
Differentiating X(u,v) with respect to u and v yields = [ ], = [ ]. The coefficients of the first fundamental form may be found by taking the dot product of the partial derivatives.
In mathematics, geometric calculus extends geometric algebra to include differentiation and integration. The formalism is powerful and can be shown to reproduce other mathematical theories including vector calculus, differential geometry, and differential forms. [1]
Logarithmic differentiation is a technique which uses logarithms and its differentiation rules to simplify certain expressions before actually applying the derivative. [ citation needed ] Logarithms can be used to remove exponents, convert products into sums, and convert division into subtraction — each of which may lead to a simplified ...
One example of an optimization problem is: Find the shortest curve between two points on a surface, assuming that the curve must also lie on the surface. If the surface is a plane, then the shortest curve is a line. But if the surface is, for example, egg-shaped, then the shortest path is not immediately clear.
The exterior covariant derivatives extends this map to general k. There are several equivalent ways to define this object: There are several equivalent ways to define this object: [ 3 ] Suppose that a vector-valued differential 2-form is regarded as assigning to each p a multilinear map s p : T p M × T p M → E p which is completely anti ...
For example, the second order partial derivatives of a scalar function of n variables can be organized into an n by n matrix, the Hessian matrix. One of the subtle points is that the higher derivatives are not intrinsically defined, and depend on the choice of the coordinates in a complicated fashion (in particular, the Hessian matrix of a ...