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Indirect benefits increase genetic fitness for the offspring, and thereby increase the parents' inclusive fitness. When it appears that the choosy sex does not receive direct benefits from his or her mate, indirect benefits may be the payoff for being selective.
Under an inclusive fitness framework direct fitness returns are realised through the offspring a focal individual produces independent of who it interacts with, while indirect fitness returns are realised by adding up all the effects our focal individual has on the (number of) offspring produced by those it interacts with weighted by the ...
The theory is based on the hypothesis that cooperation helps in transmitting underlying genes to future generations either through increasing the reproductive successes of the individual (direct fitness) or of other individuals who carry the same genes (indirect fitness). Direct benefits can result from simple by-product of cooperation or ...
Space agencies, governments, researchers and commentators have isolated a large number of direct and indirect benefits of space exploration programs including: New technologies that can be utilized in other industries and society (such as the development of communications satellites) Improved knowledge of space and the origin of the universe
The economic model of reciprocal altruism includes direct reciprocity and indirect reciprocity. Direct reciprocity is an immediate collaborative exchange that benefits everyone. Direct reciprocity was introduced by Robert Trivers [2] as a mechanism for the evolution of cooperation. The direct reciprocal is typically one-for-one: I incur the ...
The average indirect cost rate has averaged between 27% and 28%. Johns Hopkins received 63.7% in indirect costs, NIH said . The University of Michigan receives 56% in indirect costs, it said.
Fringe benefits are also thought of as the costs of retaining employees other than base salary. [11] The term "fringe benefits" was coined by the War Labor Board during World War II to describe the various indirect benefits which industry had devised to attract and retain labor when direct wage increases were prohibited.
Indirect taxes are paid directly to the government, unlike indirect taxes, which the government collects by levying a tax on whoever makes, sells, or ships the thing being taxed — but there are ...