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Primarily, intestinal macrophages do not induce inflammatory responses. Whereas tissue macrophages release various inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1, IL-6 and TNF-α, intestinal macrophages do not produce or secrete inflammatory cytokines. This change is directly caused by the intestinal macrophages environment.
Pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α also trigger pathological pain. [1] While IL-1β is released by monocytes and macrophages, it is also present in nociceptive DRG neurons. IL-6 plays a role in neuronal reaction to an injury. TNF-α is a well known proinflammatory cytokine present in neurons and the glia.
Cytokines are produced by a broad range of cells, including immune cells like macrophages, B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes and mast cells, as well as endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and various stromal cells; a given cytokine may be produced by more than one type of cell.
TNF can induce fever by triggering the release of cytokines interleukin-1 and interleukin-6, or through other mediators like PLA2. TNF or its mediators can reach the hypothalamus either through circulation in the bloodstream or through secretion by macrophages and endothelial cells near the hypothalamus.
MIP-1γ is another macrophage inflammatory protein and according to the new nomenclature is named CCL9. [3] It is produced mainly by follicle-associated epithelial cells and is responsible for chemotaxis of dendritic cells and macrophages into Peyer's patches in gut through binding of CCR1. [11] MIP-1δ or MIP-5 (CCL15) binds also CCR1 and CCR3 ...
When under physical stress, the release of CCL2 (cytokine) in the hair follicle induces the infiltration of macrophages. The infiltrated macrophages mainly express an M1 phenotype, which are pro-inflammatory macrophages that could trigger apoptosis of cells in the follicle by their upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-a. [2]
Nitric oxide is then released from the macrophage and, because of its toxicity, kills microbes near the macrophage. [14] Activated macrophages produce and secrete tumor necrosis factor. This cytokine—a class of signaling molecule [39] —kills cancer cells and cells infected by viruses, and helps to activate the other cells of the immune ...
TGF-β is thought to play a role in alternative macrophage activation seen in lean mice, and these macrophages maintain an anti-inflammatory phenotype. This phenotype is lost in obese mice, who have not only more macrophages than lean mice but also classically activated macrophages which release TNF-α and other pro-inflammatory cytokines that ...