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A sound choice of which extrapolation method to apply relies on a priori knowledge of the process that created the existing data points. Some experts have proposed the use of causal forces in the evaluation of extrapolation methods. [2] Crucial questions are, for example, if the data can be assumed to be continuous, smooth, possibly periodic, etc.
Statisticians are not in complete agreement on ideal methods; Statistical methods are based on assumptions which are seldom fully met; Data gathering is usually limited by ethical, practical and financial constraints. How to Lie with Statistics acknowledges that statistics can legitimately take many forms. Whether the statistics show that a ...
There is a paucity of reliable guidance on estimating sample sizes before starting the research, with a range of suggestions given. [ 16 ] [ 19 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ] In an effort to introduce some structure to the sample size determination process in qualitative research, a tool analogous to quantitative power calculations has been proposed.
This is not the same as reliability, which is the extent to which a measurement gives results that are very consistent. Within validity, the measurement does not always have to be similar, as it does in reliability. However, just because a measure is reliable, it is not necessarily valid. E.g. a scale that is 5 pounds off is reliable but not valid.
Measurements are gathered from a single rater who uses the same methods or instruments and the same testing conditions. [4] This includes intra-rater reliability. Inter-method reliability assesses the degree to which test scores are consistent when there is a variation in the methods or instruments used. This allows inter-rater reliability to ...
One argument for this position is based on the claim that research is not a technique but a craft that cannot be achieved by blindly following a method. In this regard, research depends on forms of creativity and improvisation to amount to good science. [14] [45] [46] Other types include inductive, deductive, and transcendental methods. [9]
With the application of probability sampling in the 1930s, surveys became a standard tool for empirical research in social sciences, marketing, and official statistics. [1] The methods involved in survey data collection are any of a number of ways in which data can be collected for a statistical survey. These are methods that are used to ...
One of the most important requirements of experimental research designs is the necessity of eliminating the effects of spurious, intervening, and antecedent variables. In the most basic model, cause (X) leads to effect (Y). But there could be a third variable (Z) that influences (Y), and X might not be the true cause at all.