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Calculus is the mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape, and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations. Originally called infinitesimal calculus or "the calculus of infinitesimals", it has two major branches, differential calculus and integral calculus.
The origins of differentiation likewise predate the fundamental theorem of calculus by hundreds of years; for example, in the fourteenth century the notions of continuity of functions and motion were studied by the Oxford Calculators and other scholars. The historical relevance of the fundamental theorem of calculus is not the ability to ...
At this time, the work of Cavalieri with his method of indivisibles, and work by Fermat, began to lay the foundations of modern calculus, [7] with Cavalieri computing the integrals of x n up to degree n = 9 in Cavalieri's quadrature formula. [8] The case n = −1 required the invention of a function, the hyperbolic logarithm, achieved by ...
In mathematics, the Euler–Maclaurin formula is a formula for the difference between an integral and a closely related sum. It can be used to approximate integrals by finite sums, or conversely to evaluate finite sums and infinite series using integrals and the machinery of calculus .
Calculus of variations is concerned with variations of functionals, which are small changes in the functional's value due to small changes in the function that is its argument. The first variation [ l ] is defined as the linear part of the change in the functional, and the second variation [ m ] is defined as the quadratic part.
In integral calculus, Euler's formula for complex numbers may be used to evaluate integrals involving trigonometric functions. Using Euler's formula, any trigonometric function may be written in terms of complex exponential functions, namely e i x {\displaystyle e^{ix}} and e − i x {\displaystyle e^{-ix}} and then integrated.
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This calculus is also known as advanced calculus, especially in the United States. It is similar to multivariable calculus but is somewhat more sophisticated in that it uses linear algebra (or some functional analysis) more extensively and covers some concepts from differential geometry such as differential forms and Stokes' formula in terms of ...