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The converting process occurs in a converter. Two kinds of converters are widely used: horizontal and vertical. Horizontal converters of the Peirce-Smith type (which are an improvement of the Manhès-David converter ) prevail in the metallurgy of non-ferrous metals. Such a converter is a horizontal barrel lined with refractory material inside.
Many methods had been applied to the production of titanium metal, beginning with a report in 1887 by Nilsen and Pettersen using sodium, which was optimized into the commercial Hunter process. In this process (which ceased to be commercial in the 1990s) TiCl 4 is reduced to the metal by sodium .
The pig iron was melted in this and run out into a trough. The slag separated, and floated on the molten iron, and was removed by lowering a dam at the end of the trough. The effect of this process was to desiliconise the metal, leaving a white brittle metal, known as 'finers metal'. This was the ideal material to charge to the puddling furnace.
Metallurgy derives from the Ancient Greek μεταλλουργός, metallourgós, "worker in metal", from μέταλλον, métallon, "mine, metal" + ἔργον, érgon, "work" The word was originally an alchemist's term for the extraction of metals from minerals, the ending -urgy signifying a process, especially manufacturing: it was discussed in this sense in the 1797 Encyclopædia ...
Direct reduction processes can be divided roughly into two categories: gas-based and coal-based. In both cases, the objective of the process is to remove the oxygen contained in various forms of iron ore (sized ore, concentrates, pellets, mill scale, furnace dust, etc.) in order to convert the ore to metallic iron, without melting it (below 1,200 °C (2,190 °F)).
Steel is made from iron and carbon. Cast iron is a hard, brittle material that is difficult to work, whereas steel is malleable, relatively easily formed and versatile. On its own, iron is not strong, but a low concentration of carbon – less than 1 percent, depending on the kind of steel – gives steel strength and other important properties.
The process differs essentially from the Bessemer process in the refractory lining of the converter. The latter, being made of dolomite ((Ca,Mg)(CO 3) 2) fired with tar, is basic (MgO giving O 2− anions), whereas the Bessemer lining, made of packed sand, is acidic (SiO 2 accepting O 2− anions) according to the Lux-Flood theory of molten oxides.
They were later identified in fact to be made from cerussite and galena, minerals rich in, but distinct from, lead. [7] Ancient smelting was done using loads of lead ore and charcoal in outdoor hearths and furnaces. Although lead is a common metal, its discovery had relatively little impact in the ancient world.
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