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First-order logic—also called predicate logic, predicate calculus, quantificational logic—is a collection of formal systems used in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science.
[4] Certification takes two years, costs a million dollars, and is needed again for any equipment update, so election machines are a difficult market. [5] A revision to the guidelines, known as the VVSG 1.1, was prepared in 2009 and approved in 2015. [2] Voting machine manufacturers can choose which guidelines they follow. [6]