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If n is a negative integer, is defined only if x has a multiplicative inverse. [35] In this case, the inverse of x is denoted x −1, and x n is defined as (). Exponentiation with integer exponents obeys the following laws, for x and y in the algebraic structure, and m and n integers:
If K is a field (such as the complex numbers), a Puiseux series with coefficients in K is an expression of the form = = + / where is a positive integer and is an integer. In other words, Puiseux series differ from Laurent series in that they allow for fractional exponents of the indeterminate, as long as these fractional exponents have bounded denominator (here n).
Unit fractions can also be expressed using negative exponents, as in 2 −1, which represents 1/2, and 2 −2, which represents 1/(2 2) or 1/4. A dyadic fraction is a common fraction in which the denominator is a power of two , e.g. 1 / 8 = 1 / 2 3 .
By comparison, powers of two with negative exponents are fractions: for positive integer n, 2-n is one half multiplied by itself n times. Thus the first few negative powers of 2 are 1 / 2 , 1 / 4 , 1 / 8 , 1 / 16 , etc.
Negative powers are not permitted in an ordinary power series; for instance, + + + + is not considered a power series (although it is a Laurent series). Similarly, fractional powers such as x 1 2 {\textstyle x^{\frac {1}{2}}} are not permitted; fractional powers arise in Puiseux series .
The integer n is called the exponent and the real number m is called the significand or mantissa. [1] The term "mantissa" can be ambiguous where logarithms are involved, because it is also the traditional name of the fractional part of the common logarithm. If the number is negative then a minus sign precedes m, as in
A negative real number ... Expressing the degree of an nth root in its exponent form, as in / , makes it ... there is a fraction under the radical sign, which we ...
Namely, an attacker observing the sequence of squarings and multiplications can (partially) recover the exponent involved in the computation. This is a problem if the exponent should remain secret, as with many public-key cryptosystems. A technique called "Montgomery's ladder" [2] addresses this concern.
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