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In pharmacology and toxicology, a route of administration is the way by which a drug, fluid, poison, or other substance is taken into the body. [1] Routes of administration are generally classified by the location at which the substance is applied. Common examples include oral and intravenous administration. Routes can also be classified based ...
l-DOPA is produced from the amino acid l-tyrosine by the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase. l-DOPA can act as an l-tyrosine mimetic and be incorporated into proteins by mammalian cells in place of l-tyrosine, generating protease-resistant and aggregate-prone proteins in vitro and may contribute to neurotoxicity with chronic l-DOPA administration. [10]
Polar body twinning is a hypothesized form of twinning in meiosis, where one or more polar bodies do not disintegrate and are fertilized by sperm. [2] Twinning would occur, in principle, if the egg cell and a polar body were both fertilized by separate sperms.
Molecules with a polar surface area of greater than 140 angstroms squared (Å 2) tend to be poor at permeating cell membranes. [1] For molecules to penetrate the blood–brain barrier (and thus act on receptors in the central nervous system ), a PSA less than 90 Å 2 is usually needed.
Insulin is a hormone that facilitates the transport of glucose from blood into cells, thereby reducing blood glucose (blood sugar). Insulin is released by the pancreas in response to carbohydrates consumed in the diet. In states of insulin resistance, the same amount of insulin does not have the same effect on glucose transport and blood sugar ...
Insulin was first used as a medication in Canada by Charles Best and Frederick Banting in 1922. [85] [86] This is a chronology of key milestones in the history of the medical use of insulin. For more details on the discovery, extraction, purification, clinical use, and synthesis of insulin, see Insulin
NPH insulin is cloudy and has an onset of 1–3 hours. Its peak is 6–8 hours and its duration is up to 24 hours. [9]It has an intermediate duration of action, meaning longer than that of regular and rapid-acting insulin, and shorter than long acting insulins (ultralente, glargine or detemir).
[13] [14] Estradiol differs from non-bioidentical estrogens like conjugated estrogens and ethinylestradiol in various ways, with implications for tolerability and safety. [ 10 ] Estradiol can be taken by mouth , held under the tongue , as a gel or patch that is applied to the skin , in through the vagina , by injection into muscle or fat , or ...