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The first documented computer architecture was in the correspondence between Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace, describing the analytical engine.While building the computer Z1 in 1936, Konrad Zuse described in two patent applications for his future projects that machine instructions could be stored in the same storage used for data, i.e., the stored-program concept.
Memory-mapped I/O is preferred in IA-32 and x86-64 based architectures because the instructions that perform port-based I/O are limited to one register: EAX, AX, and AL are the only registers that data can be moved into or out of, and either a byte-sized immediate value in the instruction or a value in register DX determines which port is the source or destination port of the transfer.
As with ideal observer decoding, a convention must be agreed to for non-unique decoding. The maximum likelihood decoding problem can also be modeled as an integer programming problem. [1] The maximum likelihood decoding algorithm is an instance of the "marginalize a product function" problem which is solved by applying the generalized ...
Superscalar CPU design emphasizes improving the instruction dispatcher accuracy and allowing it to keep the multiple execution units in use at all times. This has become increasingly important as the number of units has increased.
It is a process because a sequence of steps is prescribed to produce or change the architecture, and/or a design from that architecture, of a hardware system within a set of constraints. It is a discipline because a body of knowledge is used to inform practitioners as to the most effective way to design the system within a set of constraints.
In simpler CPUs, the instruction cycle is executed sequentially, each instruction being processed before the next one is started. In most modern CPUs, the instruction cycles are instead executed concurrently, and often in parallel, through an instruction pipeline: the next instruction starts being processed before the previous instruction has finished, which is possible because the cycle is ...
By incorporating an AGU into a CPU design, together with introducing specialized instructions that use the AGU, various address-generation calculations can be offloaded from the rest of the CPU, and can often be executed quickly in a single CPU cycle. [2] [3] Capabilities of an AGU depend on a particular CPU and its architecture.
A hardware abstraction layer (HAL) is an abstraction layer, implemented in software, between the physical hardware of a computer and the software that runs on that computer. . Its function is to hide differences in hardware from most of the operating system kernel, so that most of the kernel-mode code does not need to be changed to run on systems with different hardwa