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A "closed universe" is necessarily a closed manifold. An "open universe" can be either a closed or open manifold. For example, in the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) model, the universe is considered to be without boundaries, in which case "compact universe" could describe a universe that is a closed manifold.
Recent observations conclude, from 7.5 billion years after the Big Bang, that the expansion rate of the universe has probably been increasing, commensurate with the Open Universe theory. [9] However, measurements made by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe suggest that the universe is either flat or very close to flat. [2]
The ratio of the actual density to this critical value is called Ω, and its difference from 1 determines the geometry of the universe: Ω > 1 corresponds to a greater than critical density, >, and hence a closed universe. Ω < 1 gives a low density open universe, and Ω equal to exactly 1 gives a flat universe.
The first Friedmann equation contains a discrete parameter k = +1, 0 or −1 depending on whether the shape of the universe is a closed 3-sphere, flat (Euclidean space) or an open 3-hyperboloid, respectively. [5] If k is positive, then the universe is "closed": starting off on some paths through the universe return to the starting point. Such a ...
These are called, respectively, the flat, open and closed universes. [77] Observations, including the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), and Planck maps of the CMB, suggest that the universe is infinite in extent with a finite age, as described by the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW ...
Shown from top to bottom are a closed universe with positive curvature, a hyperbolic universe with negative curvature and a flat universe with zero curvature. The flatness problem (also known as the oldness problem) is an observational problem associated with a FLRW. [139]
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Proposals about the final state of the universe depend on the assumptions made about its ultimate fate, and these assumptions have varied considerably over the late 20th century and early 21st century. In a theorized "open" or "flat" universe that continues expanding indefinitely, either a heat death or a Big Rip is expected to eventually occur.