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The California Job Case was a compartmentalized box for printing in the 19th century, sizes corresponding to the commonality of letters. The frequency of letters in text has been studied for use in cryptanalysis, and frequency analysis in particular, dating back to the Arab mathematician al-Kindi (c. AD 801–873 ), who formally developed the method (the ciphers breakable by this technique go ...
The same letter (or sequence of letters) may be pronounced differently when occurring in different positions within a word. For instance, gh represents /f/ at the end of some words (tough / t ʌ f /) but not in others (plough / p l aʊ /). At the beginning of syllables, gh is pronounced /ɡ/, as in ghost / ɡ oʊ s t /.
Grammatical abbreviations are generally written in full or small caps to visually distinguish them from the translations of lexical words. For instance, capital or small-cap PAST (frequently abbreviated to PST) glosses a grammatical past-tense morpheme, while lower-case 'past' would be a literal translation of a word with that meaning.
common endings: -en, -er, -ern, -st, -ung, -chen, -tät; rare letters: x, y (except in loanwords) letter c rarely used except in the sequences listed above and in loanwords; long compound words; a period (.) after ordinal numbers, e.g. 3. Oktober; many capitalised words in the middle of sentences since German capitalizes all nouns.
Infinitive verbs always end in -ar, -er, or -ir. They cover the functions of both the infinitive and the gerund in English and can be pluralized where it makes sense. Cognoscer nos es amar nos. 'To know us is to love us.' Il es difficile determinar su strategia. 'It's hard to figure out his strategy.' Illes time le venir del locustas.
In the traditional standard pronunciation, this happens only in the unstressed ending -er and after long vowels: for example besser [ˈbɛsɐ], sehr [zeːɐ̯]. In common speech the vocalization is usual after short vowels as well, and additional contractions may occur: for example Dorn [dɔɐ̯n] ~ [dɔːn], hart [haɐ̯t] ~ [haːt]. [14]
If the abbreviation ends a declaratory sentence, there is no additional period immediately following the full stop that ends the abbreviation (e.g. "My name is Gabriel Gama Jr."). Though two full stops (one for the abbreviation, one for the sentence ending) might be expected, conventionally only one is written. [26]
Most multiples of ten end in a vowel in their cardinal form and form their ordinal form by adding the suffix to their genitive singular form, which ends in -d; this is not reflected in writing. Exceptions are 20 ( fiche ) and 40 ( daichead ), both of which form their ordinals by adding the suffix directly to the cardinal ( fichiú and daicheadú ).