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In philosophy, Pascal's mugging is a thought experiment demonstrating a problem in expected utility maximization. A rational agent should choose actions whose outcomes, when weighted by their probability, have higher utility. But some very unlikely outcomes may have very great utilities, and these utilities can grow faster than the probability ...
The Circuit Value Problem — the problem of computing the output of a given Boolean circuit on a given input string — is a P-complete decision problem. [3]: 119 Therefore, this problem is considered to be "inherently sequential" in the sense that there is likely no efficient, highly parallel algorithm that solves the problem.
The problem of points, also called the problem of division of the stakes, is a classical problem in probability theory. One of the famous problems that motivated the beginnings of modern probability theory in the 17th century, it led Blaise Pascal to the first explicit reasoning about what today is known as an expected value .
In logic, the law of excluded middle or the principle of excluded middle states that for every proposition, either this proposition or its negation is true. [1] [2] It is one of the three laws of thought, along with the law of noncontradiction, and the law of identity; however, no system of logic is built on just these laws, and none of these laws provides inference rules, such as modus ponens ...
Material implication is used in all the basic systems of classical logic as well as some nonclassical logics. It is assumed as a model of correct conditional reasoning within mathematics and serves as the basis for commands in many programming languages.
In first-order logic, resolution condenses the traditional syllogisms of logical inference down to a single rule. To understand how resolution works, consider the following example syllogism of term logic: All Greeks are Europeans. Homer is a Greek. Therefore, Homer is a European. Or, more generally: .
This problem is partially addressed by the so-called variable sharing principle. It states that antecedent and consequent have to share a propositional variable. [67] [68] [14] This would be the case, for example, in " " but not in " ". A closely related concern of relevance logic is that inferences should follow the same requirement of ...
Example of a logic model for a school-based self-management educational interventions for asthma in children and adolescents. Logic models are hypothesized descriptions of the chain of causes and effects leading from inputs and activities to an outcome of interest (e.g. prevalence of cardiovascular diseases, annual traffic collision, etc.).