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  2. Quadratic residue - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_residue

    The quadratic excess E(p) is the number of quadratic residues on the range (0,p/2) minus the number in the range (p/2,p) (sequence A178153 in the OEIS). For p congruent to 1 mod 4, the excess is zero, since −1 is a quadratic residue and the residues are symmetric under r ↔ p−r. For p congruent to 3 mod 4, the excess E is always positive. [29]

  3. Quadratic equation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_equation

    Quadratic equation. In mathematics, a quadratic equation (from Latin quadratus ' square ') is an equation that can be rearranged in standard form as [1] where x represents an unknown value, and a, b, and c represent known numbers, where a ≠ 0. (If a = 0 and b ≠ 0 then the equation is linear, not quadratic.)

  4. Pocklington's algorithm - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocklington's_algorithm

    Pocklington's algorithm. Pocklington's algorithm is a technique for solving a congruence of the form. where x and a are integers and a is a quadratic residue . The algorithm is one of the first efficient methods to solve such a congruence. It was described by H.C. Pocklington in 1917.

  5. Reciprocity law - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocity_law

    In mathematics, a reciprocity law is a generalization of the law of quadratic reciprocity to arbitrary monic irreducible polynomials with integer coefficients. Recall that first reciprocity law, quadratic reciprocity, determines when an irreducible polynomial splits into linear terms when reduced mod . That is, it determines for which prime ...

  6. Wilson's theorem - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilson's_theorem

    Wilson's theorem. In algebra and number theory, Wilson's theorem states that a natural number n > 1 is a prime number if and only if the product of all the positive integers less than n is one less than a multiple of n. That is (using the notations of modular arithmetic), the factorial satisfies. exactly when n is a prime number.

  7. Pell's equation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pell's_equation

    Pell's equation, also called the Pell–Fermat equation, is any Diophantine equation of the form where n is a given positive nonsquare integer, and integer solutions are sought for x and y. In Cartesian coordinates, the equation is represented by a hyperbola; solutions occur wherever the curve passes through a point whose x and y coordinates ...

  8. Gauss's lemma (number theory) - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss's_lemma_(number_theory)

    Gauss's lemma (number theory) Condition under which an integer is a quadratic residue. Gauss's lemma in number theory gives a condition for an integer to be a quadratic residue. Although it is not useful computationally, it has theoretical significance, being involved in some proofs of quadratic reciprocity.

  9. Al-Khwarizmi - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Khwarizmi

    Al-Khwārizmī's method of solving linear and quadratic equations worked by first reducing the equation to one of six standard forms (where b and c are positive integers) squares equal roots (ax 2 = bx) squares equal number (ax 2 = c) roots equal number (bx = c) squares and roots equal number (ax 2 + bx = c) squares and number equal roots (ax 2 ...

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