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2. Quadratic residue - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_residue

   The quadratic excess E(p) is the number of quadratic residues on the range (0,p/2) minus the number in the range (p/2,p) (sequence A178153 in the OEIS). For p congruent to 1 mod 4, the excess is zero, since −1 is a quadratic residue and the residues are symmetric under r ↔ p−r. For p congruent to 3 mod 4, the excess E is always positive. [29]

3. Quadratic equation - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_equation

   Quadratic equation. In mathematics, a quadratic equation (from Latin quadratus ' square ') is an equation that can be rearranged in standard form as [1] where x represents an unknown value, and a, b, and c represent known numbers, where a ≠ 0. (If a = 0 and b ≠ 0 then the equation is linear, not quadratic.)

4. Pocklington's algorithm - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocklington's_algorithm

   Pocklington's algorithm. Pocklington's algorithm is a technique for solving a congruence of the form. where x and a are integers and a is a quadratic residue . The algorithm is one of the first efficient methods to solve such a congruence. It was described by H.C. Pocklington in 1917.

5. Conjugate gradient method - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_gradient_method

   Conjugate gradient, assuming exact arithmetic, converges in at most n steps, where n is the size of the matrix of the system (here n = 2). In mathematics, the conjugate gradient method is an algorithm for the numerical solution of particular systems of linear equations, namely those whose matrix is positive-semidefinite.

6. Pell's equation - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pell's_equation

   Pell's equation. Pell's equation for n = 2 and six of its integer solutions. Pell's equation, also called the Pell–Fermat equation, is any Diophantine equation of the form where n is a given positive nonsquare integer, and integer solutions are sought for x and y. In Cartesian coordinates, the equation is represented by a hyperbola; solutions ...

7. Matrix congruence - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_congruence

   Matrix congruence is an equivalence relation. Matrix congruence arises when considering the effect of change of basis on the Gram matrix attached to a bilinear form or quadratic form on a finite-dimensional vector space: two matrices are congruent if and only if they represent the same bilinear form with respect to different bases.

8. Legendre symbol - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legendre_symbol

   In number theory, the Legendre symbol is a multiplicative function with values 1, −1, 0 that is a quadratic character modulo of an odd prime number p: its value at a (nonzero) quadratic residue mod p is 1 and at a non-quadratic residue (non-residue) is −1. Its value at zero is 0. The Legendre symbol was introduced by Adrien-Marie Legendre ...

9. Quadratic reciprocity - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_reciprocity

   Quadratic Reciprocity (Legendre's statement). If p or q are congruent to 1 modulo 4, then: is solvable if and only if is solvable. If p and q are congruent to 3 modulo 4, then: is solvable if and only if is not solvable. The last is immediately equivalent to the modern form stated in the introduction above.