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An LL(1) grammar with symbols that have both empty and non-empty derivations is also an LALR(1) grammar. An LL(1) grammar with symbols that have only the empty derivation may or may not be LALR(1). [9] LL grammars cannot have rules containing left recursion. [10] Each LL(k) grammar that is ε-free can be transformed into an equivalent LL(k ...
A grammar is called an LL grammar if an LL(k) parser can be constructed from it. A formal language is called an LL(k) language if it has an LL(k) grammar. The set of LL(k) languages is properly contained in that of LL(k+1) languages, for each k ≥ 0. [1]
Depending on the presence of empty derivations, a LL(1) grammar can be equal to a SLR(1) or a LALR(1) grammar. If the LL(1) grammar has no empty derivations it is SLR(1) and if all symbols with empty derivations have non-empty derivations it is LALR(1). If symbols having only an empty derivation exist, the grammar may or may not be LALR(1). [12]
However, it can be shown that when this happens the grammar is not an LR(0) grammar. A classic real-world example of a shift-reduce conflict is the dangling else problem. A small example of a non-LR(0) grammar with a shift-reduce conflict is: (1) E → 1 E (2) E → 1. One of the item sets found is: Item set 1 E → 1 • E E → 1 • + E → ...
A formal grammar that contains left recursion cannot be parsed by a naive recursive descent parser unless they are converted to a weakly equivalent right-recursive form. . However, recent research demonstrates that it is possible to accommodate left-recursive grammars (along with all other forms of general CFGs) in a more sophisticated top-down parser by use of curta
In computer science, a recursive descent parser is a kind of top-down parser built from a set of mutually recursive procedures (or a non-recursive equivalent) where each such procedure implements one of the nonterminals of the grammar. Thus the structure of the resulting program closely mirrors that of the grammar it recognizes. [1] [2]
It is decidable whether a given grammar is a regular grammar, [f] as well as whether it is an LL grammar for a given k≥0. [26]: 233 If k is not given, the latter problem is undecidable. [26]: 252 Given a context-free grammar, it is not decidable whether its language is regular, [27] nor whether it is an LL(k) language for a given k.
A regular grammar is a grammar that is left-linear or right-linear. Observe that by inserting new nonterminals, any linear grammar can be replaced by an equivalent one where some of the rules are left-linear and some are right-linear. For instance, the rules of G above can be replaced with S → aA A → Sb S → ε