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The post-increment and post-decrement operators increase (or decrease) the value of their operand by 1, but the value of the expression is the operand's value prior to the increment (or decrement) operation. In languages where increment/decrement is not an expression (e.g., Go), only one version is needed (in the case of Go, post operators only).
For example, consider variables a, b and c of some user-defined type, such as matrices: a + b * c In a language that supports operator overloading, and with the usual assumption that the '*' operator has higher precedence than the '+' operator, this is a concise way of writing:
Comparison of programming languages; General comparison; Assignment; Basic syntax; Basic instructions; Comments; Control flow Foreach loops; While loops; For loops
PERFORM procedure-1 «THROUGH procedure-2» VARYING i FROM first BY increment UNTIL i > last or PERFORM VARYING i FROM first BY increment UNTIL i > last expression END-PERFORM — Rust: while condition { expression} loop { expression if condition { break; }} for i in first..last+1 { expression} or for i in first..=last {
This approach is characteristic of functional programming and is also used by the string implementations in Java, C#, and Python. (See Immutable object.) The second class of approaches are synchronization-related, and are used in situations where shared state cannot be avoided: Mutual exclusion
According to this principle, member variables of a class are made private to hide and protect them from other code, and can only be modified by a public member function (the mutator method), which takes the desired new value as a parameter, optionally validates it, and modifies the private member variable.
C# makes use of reification to provide "first-class" generic objects that can be used like any other class, with code generation performed at class-load time. [29] Furthermore, C# has added several major features to accommodate functional-style programming, culminating in the LINQ extensions released with C# 3.0 and its supporting framework of ...
In the above Python code, it does not provide much information as there is only class variable in the Dog class that provide the vertebrate group of dog as mammals. In instance variable, you could customize your own object (in this case, dog_1) by having one or more instance variables in the Dog class.