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In microeconomics, the expenditure function represents the minimum amount of expenditure needed to achieve a given level of utility, given a utility function and the prices of goods. Formally, if there is a utility function u {\displaystyle u} that describes preferences over n goods, the expenditure function e ( p , u ∗ ) {\displaystyle e(p,u ...
For example, if an increase in German government spending by €100, with no change in tax rates, causes German GDP to increase by €150, then the spending multiplier is 1.5. Other types of fiscal multipliers can also be calculated, like multipliers that describe the effects of changing taxes (such as lump-sum taxes or proportional taxes).
These consist of consumption expenditure C, planned investment expenditure, I p, government expenditure on goods and services, G and exports net of imports, NX. In the simplest exposition of Keynesian theory, the economy is assumed to be closed (which implies that NX = 0), and planned investment is exogenous and determined by the animal spirits ...
The value Keynes assigns to his multiplier is the reciprocal of the marginal propensity to save: k = 1 / S '(Y ). This is the same as the formula for Kahn's multiplier in a closed economy assuming that all saving (including the purchase of durable goods), and not just hoarding, constitutes leakage.
The end result is a magnified, multiplied change in aggregate production initially triggered by the change in investment, but amplified by the change in consumption i.e. the initial investment multiplied by the consumption coefficient (Marginal Propensity to consume).
The simplistic multiplier that is the reciprocal of the marginal propensity to save is a special case used for illustrative purposes only. The multiplier applies to any change in autonomous expenditure , in other words, an externally induced change in consumption , investment, government expenditure or net exports .
The multipliers showed that any form of increased government spending would have more of a multiplier effect than any form of tax cuts. The most effective policy, a temporary increase in food stamps, had an estimated multiplier of 1.73. The lowest multiplier for a spending increase was general aid to state governments, 1.36.
However, the size of this multiplier effect is likely to be diminished by two considerations: first, an upward push that the new spending gives to interest rates, which diminishes spending on goods such as physical capital and consumer durables; and second, an upward push that the spending gives to the general price level, which diminishes the ...