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According to Paul Kiparsky, [2] Lachmann's law is an example of a sound law that affects deep phonological structure, not the surface result of phonological rules. In Proto-Indo-European, a voiced stop was already pronounced as voiceless before voiceless stops, as the assimilation by voicedness must have been operational in PIE (*h₂eǵtos → *h₂eḱtos 'forced, made').
The concept of voice onset time can be traced back as far as the 19th century, when Adjarian (1899: 119) [1] studied the Armenian stops, and characterized them by "the relation that exists between two moments: the one when the consonant bursts when the air is released out of the mouth, or explosion, and the one when the larynx starts vibrating".
A stop consonant that is made with the body of the tongue in contact with the hard palate is called a palatal stop. Retroflex stops are less common than velar stops or alveolar stops and do not occur in native English. They sound somewhat like the native English alveolar stops [t] and [d], but they have a more hollow
In alphabets using the Latin script, an IPA-like apostrophe for ejective consonants is common. However, there are other conventions. In Hausa, the hooked letter ƙ is used for /kʼ/. In Zulu and Xhosa, whose ejection is variable between speakers, plain consonant letters are used: p t k ts tsh kr for /pʼ tʼ kʼ tsʼ tʃʼ kxʼ/.
Voiceless stops and affricates /p, t, k, tʃ/ are longer than their voiced counterparts /b, d, ɡ, dʒ/ when situated at the end of a syllable. Try comparing "cap" to "cab" or "back" to "bag". When a stop comes before another stop, the explosion of air only follows after the second stop, illustrated in words like "apt" [æp̚t] and "rubbed ...
If the "plain voiced stops" were not voiced, the "voiced aspirated stops" were the only voiced stops. The second constraint can accordingly be reformulated as: two nonglottalic stops must agree in voicing. Since the glottalic stops were outside the voiced/voiceless opposition, they were immune from the constraint on voicing agreement in (2).
Voiceless stops are allophonically aspirated under most conditions. Voiced stops become unaspirated voiceless stops. All aspirated stops become fricatives. This sequence would lead to the same result. This variety of Grimm's law is often suggested in the context of Proto-Indo-European glottalic theory, which is followed by a minority of linguists.
Owere Igbo has a seven-way contrast among bilabial stops, /pʰ p ƥ bʱ b ɓ m/, and its alveolar stops are similar. The voiceless velar implosive occurs marginally in Uspantek [17] and /ʠ/ occurs in Mam, Kaqchikel, and Uspantek. [18] Lendu has been claimed to have voiceless /ƥ ƭ ƈ/, but they may actually be creaky-voiced implosives. [9]