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In response to de jure racism, protest and lobbyist groups emerged, most notably, the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) in 1909. [139] This era is sometimes referred to as the nadir of American race relations because racism, segregation, racial discrimination, and expressions of white supremacy all increased
On April 20, 2021, Ma'Khia Bryant, a 16-year-old African-American girl, was fatally shot by Columbus police officer Nicholas Reardon in Columbus, Ohio when she attacked another girl with a knife. [141] Bryant was transported to Mount Carmel East hospital, where she was pronounced dead. [142] The killing sparked protests in Columbus and around Ohio.
This is a timeline of African-American history, ... September 13 – The film A Soldier's Story is released, dealing with racism in the U.S. military.
Gottesman, Ronald, ed. Violence in America: An Encyclopedia (3 vol 1999) vol 2 online, comprehensive guide by experts; Graham, Hugh D. and Ted R Gurr, eds. The History of Violence in America: Historical and Comparative Perspectives (1969) (A Report Submitted to the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence) online
Hornsby, Jr., Alton, ed. Chronology of African American History (2nd Ed. 1997) 720pp. Hornsby, Jr., Alton, ed. Black America: A State-by-State Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2011) excerpt; Lowery, Charles D. and John F. Marszalek Encyclopedia of African-American civil rights: from emancipation to the present (Greenwood, 1992).
The nadir of American race relations was the period in African-American history and the history of the United States from the end of Reconstruction in 1877 through the early 20th century, when racism in the country, and particularly anti-black racism, was more open and pronounced than it had ever been during any other period in the nation's history.
An African American man drinking at a "colored" drinking fountain in a streetcar terminal in Oklahoma City, 1939 by Russell Lee [15] Black schools were established by some religious groups and philanthropists to educate African Americans. Oberlin Academy was one of the early schools to integrate.
In the context of racism in the United States, racism against African Americans dates back to the colonial era, and it continues to be a persistent issue in American society in the 21st century. From the arrival of the first Africans in early colonial times until after the American Civil War , most African Americans were enslaved .