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The Helmholtz free energy is defined as [3], where . F is the Helmholtz free energy (sometimes also called A, particularly in the field of chemistry) (SI: joules, CGS: ergs),; U is the internal energy of the system (SI: joules, CGS: ergs),
The Hardy–Pomeau–Pazzis (HPP) model is a fundamental lattice gas automaton for the simulation of gases and liquids. It was a precursor to the lattice Boltzmann methods . From lattice gas automata, it is possible to derive the macroscopic Navier-Stokes equations . [ 1 ]