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Microvilli are present on the epithelium of a villus and further increase the surface area over which absorption can take place. Numerous intestinal glands as pocket-like invaginations are present in the underlying tissue. In the large intestines, villi are absent and a flat surface with thousands of glands is observed.
In secondary spontaneous pneumothorax, the estimated annual AAIR is 6.3 and 2.0 cases per 100,000 person-years for males and females, [21] [57] respectively, with the risk of recurrence depending on the presence and severity of any underlying lung disease.
With an increase in the waist to hip ratio and overall waist circumference the risk of death increases as well. [7] Metabolic syndrome is associated with abdominal obesity, blood lipid disorders, inflammation, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease.
In epidemiology, a risk factor or determinant is a variable associated with an increased risk of disease or infection. [ 1 ] : 38 Due to a lack of harmonization across disciplines, determinant , in its more widely accepted scientific meaning , is often used as a synonym.
Obesity increases a person's risk of developing various metabolic diseases, cardiovascular disease, osteoarthritis, Alzheimer disease, depression, and certain types of cancer. [36] Depending on the degree of obesity and the presence of comorbid disorders, obesity is associated with an estimated 2–20 year shorter life expectancy.
Periodontal disease, also known as gum disease, is a set of inflammatory conditions affecting the tissues surrounding the teeth. [5] In its early stage, called gingivitis, the gums become swollen and red and may bleed. [5] It is considered the main cause of tooth loss for adults worldwide.
[1] [5] Other factors believed to increase risk include obesity, prolonged sitting, [8] [dubious – discuss] a chronic cough, and pelvic floor dysfunction. [2] Squatting while defecating may also increase the risk of severe hemorrhoids. [19] Evidence for these associations, however, is poor. [2]
Cigarette smokers are more likely to experience destruction of the alveolar bone and periodontal ligament and are at a higher risk of developing periodontal disease. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Nicotine and lipopolysaccharides synergistically induce the production of nitric oxide (NO) and PGE2, and increase inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and COX-2 ...