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Persistent HDV viremia is the most important risk factor for disease progression in those with co-infection or superinfection. [42] Other factors that are responsible for a poor prognosis in chronic hepatitis D include male sex, older age at time of infection, alcohol use, diabetes, obesity and immunodeficiency. [42]
An example is the coinfection of liver cells with hepatitis B virus and hepatitis D virus, which can arise incrementally by initial infection followed by superinfection. [citation needed] Global prevalence or incidence of coinfection among humans is unknown, but it is thought to be commonplace, [1] sometimes more common than single infection. [2]
Acute hepatitis B; Acute hepatitis C; Acute hepatitis D – this is a superinfection with the delta-agent in a patient already infected with hepatitis B; Acute hepatitis E; Chronic viral hepatitis; Other viral hepatitis viruses may exist but their relation to the disease is not firmly established like the previous ones (hepatitis F, GB virus C ...
Superinfection is the process by which a cell that has previously been infected by one virus gets co-infected with a different strain of the virus, or another virus, at a later point in time. [3] In some cases viral superinfections may be resistant to the antiviral drug or drugs that were being used to treat the original infection.
The epidemiology of hepatitis D occurs worldwide. [1] Although the figures are disputed, a recent systematic review suggests that up to 60 million individuals could be infected. [ 2 ] The major victims are the carriers of the hepatitis B surface antigen ( HBsAg ), who become superinfected by the HDV, and intravenous drug users who are the group ...
Hepatitis D is a defective virus that requires hepatitis B to replicate and is only found with hepatitis B co-infection. [17] In adults, hepatitis B infection is most commonly self-limiting, with less than 5% progressing to chronic state, and 20 to 30% of those chronically infected developing cirrhosis or liver cancer. [31]
Viral interference is considered the most common outcome of coinfection, or the simultaneous infection of a host by two or more distinct viruses. [5] The primary form of viral interference is known as superinfection exclusion, in which the initial infection stimulates a resistance to subsequent infection by related viruses.
Viral hepatitis is liver inflammation due to a viral infection. [1] [2] It may present in acute form as a recent infection with relatively rapid onset, or in chronic form, typically progressing from a long-lasting asymptomatic condition up to a decompensated hepatic disease and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).