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The analysis of errors computed using the global positioning system is important for understanding how GPS works, and for knowing what magnitude errors should be expected. The Global Positioning System makes corrections for receiver clock errors and other effects but there are still residual errors which are not corrected.
Low-density parity-check (LDPC) codes are a class of highly efficient linear block codes made from many single parity check (SPC) codes. They can provide performance very close to the channel capacity (the theoretical maximum) using an iterated soft-decision decoding approach, at linear time complexity in terms of their block length.
Computing the square root of 2 (which is roughly 1.41421) is a well-posed problem.Many algorithms solve this problem by starting with an initial approximation x 0 to , for instance x 0 = 1.4, and then computing improved guesses x 1, x 2, etc.
Forward-Backward Euler method The result of applying both the Forward Euler method and the Forward-Backward Euler method for = and =. In order to apply the IMEX-scheme, consider a slightly different differential equation:
The backward Euler method is an implicit method, meaning that the formula for the backward Euler method has + on both sides, so when applying the backward Euler method we have to solve an equation. This makes the implementation more costly.
Compute forward probabilities Compute backward probabilities β {\displaystyle \beta } Compute smoothed probabilities based on other information (i.e. noise variance for AWGN , bit crossover probability for binary symmetric channel )
Backward finite difference [ edit ] To get the coefficients of the backward approximations from those of the forward ones, give all odd derivatives listed in the table in the previous section the opposite sign, whereas for even derivatives the signs stay the same.
This differs from the (forward) Euler method in that the forward method uses (,) in place of (+, +). The backward Euler method is an implicit method: the new approximation y k + 1 {\displaystyle y_{k+1}} appears on both sides of the equation, and thus the method needs to solve an algebraic equation for the unknown y k + 1 {\displaystyle y_{k+1}} .