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Formic acid-based fuel cells represent a promising energy supply system in terms of high volumetric energy density, theoretical energy efficiency, and theoretical open-circuit voltage. They are also able to overcome certain problems inherent to traditional hydrogen (H 2) feed fuel cells such as safe handling, storage, and H 2 transportation.
The main product of the Fischer–Tropsch process, synthetic crude oil, requires additional refining to produce fuel products such as diesel fuel or gasoline. This refining typically adds additional costs, causing some industry leaders to label the economics of commercial-scale Fischer–Tropsch processes as challenging.
The options include chemical flooding, thermal/steam injection, and CO 2 injection. [2] [6] One of the criteria for determining if CO 2 flooding is a candidate for the recovery of oil from the formation is the pressure of the formation. The miscibility of the CO 2 and the crude oil is dependent upon the pressure and the temperature.
While that was about twice the petroleum fuel cost in 2010, it is expected to be much less than the market price in less than five years if recent trends continue. [needs update] Moreover, since the delivery of fuel to a carrier battle group costs about $2,100 per cubic metre ($8/US gal), shipboard production is already much less expensive. [25]
The capital cost of steam reforming plants is considered prohibitive for small to medium size applications. The costs for these elaborate facilities do not scale down well. Conventional steam reforming plants operate at pressures between 200 and 600 psi (14–40 bar) with outlet temperatures in the range of 815 to 925 °C.
The sensitivity of catalytic reforming to contamination by sulfur and nitrogen requires hydrotreating the naphtha before it enters the reformer, adding to the cost and complexity of the process. Dehydrogenation, an important component of reforming, is a strongly endothermic reaction, and as such, requires the reactor vessel to be externally heated.
Gas to liquids (GTL) is a refinery process to convert natural gas or other gaseous hydrocarbons into longer-chain hydrocarbons, such as gasoline or diesel fuel. Methane -rich gases are converted into liquid synthetic fuels .
Hydrothermal carbonization makes it possible - similar to the biomass-to-liquid process - to use almost all of the carbon contained in the biomass for fuel generation. It is a new variation of an old field (biomass conversion to biofuel) that has recently been further developed in Germany. [2]