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Two character combinations of single-digit-single-letter (0A–9Z), single-letter-single-digit (A0–Z9), single-letter-double-digit (A00–Z99), and two-letters (AA–ZZ). Three character combinations of double-letter-single-digit (AA0–DZ9, EA0–HZ9, IA0–LZ9, MA0–PZ9, QA0–TZ9, UA0–XZ9, YA0–ZZ9) and three-letters (AAA–DZZ, EAA ...
It is a type of substitution cipher in which each letter in the plaintext is replaced by a letter some fixed number of positions down the alphabet. For example, with a left shift of 3, D would be replaced by A, E would become B, and so on. [1] The method is named after Julius Caesar, who used it in his private correspondence.
The California Job Case was a compartmentalized box for printing in the 19th century, sizes corresponding to the commonality of letters. The frequency of letters in text has been studied for use in cryptanalysis, and frequency analysis in particular, dating back to the Arab mathematician al-Kindi (c. AD 801–873 ), who formally developed the method (the ciphers breakable by this technique go ...
In this cipher, a 5 x 5 grid is filled with the letters of a mixed alphabet (two letters, usually I and J, are combined). A digraphic substitution is then simulated by taking pairs of letters as two corners of a rectangle, and using the other two corners as the ciphertext (see the Playfair cipher main article for a diagram). Special rules ...
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Combinatorics on words is a fairly new field of mathematics, branching from combinatorics, which focuses on the study of words and formal languages. The subject looks at letters or symbols, and the sequences they form. Combinatorics on words affects various areas of mathematical study, including algebra and computer science. There have been a ...
For example, if x, y and z are elements of a group G, then xy, z −1 xzz and y −1 zxx −1 yz −1 are words in the set {x, y, z}. Two different words may evaluate to the same value in G, [1] or even in every group. [2] Words play an important role in the theory of free groups and presentations, and are central objects of study in ...
A number of generalisations [25] [26] [27] of the notion of a word-representable graph are based on the observation by Jeff Remmel that non-edges are defined by occurrences of the pattern 11 (two consecutive equal letters) in a word representing a graph, while edges are defined by avoidance of this pattern. For example, instead of the pattern ...