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A wide variety of alkaloid and non-alkaloid compounds have been identified in various species of ephedra.Of the six ephedrine-type ingredients found in ephedra (at concentrations of 0.02-3.4%), the most common are ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, [12] which are the sources of its stimulant and thermogenic effects. [3]
Side effects of etilefrine include nausea, tremors, and palpitations, among others. [5] Etilefrine is an agonist of the α-and β-adrenergic receptors. [6] It is a substituted phenethylamine and is related to epinephrine, phenylephrine, and norfenefrine. [2] Etilefrine was first described and introduced for medical use by 1949. [7] [8]
Serious side effects include stroke and heart attack. [11] While probably safe in pregnancy, its use in this population [citation needed] is poorly studied. [12] [13] Use during breastfeeding is not recommended. [13] Ephedrine works by inducing the release of norepinephrine and hence indirectly activating the α-and β-adrenergic receptors. [11]
Mitragynine is an indole-based alkaloid and is one of the main psychoactive constituents in the Southeast Asian plant Mitragyna speciosa, commonly known as kratom. [4] It is an opioid that is typically consumed as a part of kratom for its pain-relieving and euphoric effects.
Combinations of DMARDs are often used, because each drug in the combination can be used in a smaller dose than if it were given alone, thus reducing the risk of side effects. [citation needed] Many patients receive an NSAID and at least one DMARD, sometimes with low-dose oral glucocorticoids. If disease remission is observed, regular NSAIDs or ...
In osteoarthritis, joint injection of glucocorticoids (such as hydrocortisone) leads to short term pain relief that may last between a few weeks and a few months. [5] Injections of hyaluronic acid have not produced improvement compared to placebo for knee arthritis, [6] [7] but did increase risk of further pain. [6]
A different 2019 review listed as common side effects: decreased appetite, weight loss, erectile dysfunction, insomnia, sweating, hyperpigmentation, hair loss, tremor, and constipation. [12] Kratom products in the U.S. are commonly used in doses of 2–6 g of dried leaf, and doses exceeding 8 g are relatively uncommon. [42]
The effects of theophylline/ephedrine as a performance-enhancing drug in exercise and sports have been studied. [20] [21] Use of theophylline/ephedrine combinations has led to disqualification of elite athletes due to ephedrine being banned in competitive sports. [22]