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In fact, the same proof shows that Euler's formula is even valid for all complex numbers x. A point in the complex plane can be represented by a complex number written in cartesian coordinates. Euler's formula provides a means of conversion between cartesian coordinates and polar coordinates. The polar form simplifies the mathematics when used ...
In integral calculus, Euler's formula for complex numbers may be used to evaluate integrals involving trigonometric functions. Using Euler's formula, any trigonometric function may be written in terms of complex exponential functions, namely e i x {\displaystyle e^{ix}} and e − i x {\displaystyle e^{-ix}} and then integrated.
It is used to solve systems of linear differential equations. In the theory of Lie groups, the matrix exponential gives the exponential map between a matrix Lie algebra and the corresponding Lie group. Let X be an n×n real or complex matrix. The exponential of X, denoted by e X or exp(X), is the n×n matrix given by the power series = =!
In the mathematical field of complex analysis, contour integration is a method of evaluating certain integrals along paths in the complex plane. [1] [2] [3]Contour integration is closely related to the calculus of residues, [4] a method of complex analysis.
Fractional calculus is a branch of mathematical analysis that studies the several different possibilities of defining real number powers or complex number powers of the differentiation operator = (), and of the integration operator J {\displaystyle J} [ Note 1 ] J f ( x ) = ∫ 0 x f ( s ) d s , {\displaystyle Jf(x)=\int _{0}^{x}f(s)\,ds\,,}
allowing for attempts to extend tetration to non-natural numbers such as real, complex, and ordinal numbers. The two inverses of tetration are called super-root and super-logarithm, analogous to the nth root and the logarithmic functions. None of the three functions are elementary. Tetration is used for the notation of very large numbers.
In calculus, and more generally in mathematical analysis, integration by parts or partial integration is a process that finds the integral of a product of functions in terms of the integral of the product of their derivative and antiderivative. It is frequently used to transform the antiderivative of a product of functions into an ...
Solving for , = = = = = Thus, the power rule applies for rational exponents of the form /, where is a nonzero natural number. This can be generalized to rational exponents of the form p / q {\displaystyle p/q} by applying the power rule for integer exponents using the chain rule, as shown in the next step.
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