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Erythropoietin (/ ɪ ˌ r ɪ θ r oʊ ˈ p ɔɪ. ɪ t ɪ n,-r ə-,-p ɔɪ ˈ ɛ t ɪ n,-ˈ iː t ɪ n /; [1] [2] [3] EPO), also known as erythropoetin, haematopoietin, or haemopoietin, is a glycoprotein cytokine secreted mainly by the kidneys in response to cellular hypoxia; it stimulates red blood cell production (erythropoiesis) in the bone marrow.
This illustration demonstrates the normal kidney physiology, including the Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT), Loop of Henle, and Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT). It also includes illustrations showing where some types of diuretics act, and what they do. Renal physiology (Latin renes, "kidneys") is the study of the physiology of the kidney.
Erythropoietin is produced in the kidney and liver in response to low oxygen levels. In addition, erythropoietin is bound by circulating red blood cells; low circulating numbers lead to a relatively high level of unbound erythropoietin, which stimulates production in the bone marrow.
Erythropoietin is also used to treat anemia in people, and cats and dogs, with chronic kidney disease who are not on dialysis (those in Stage 3 or 4 disease and those living with a kidney transplant). There are two types of erythropoietin for people, and cats and dogs, with anemia due to chronic kidney disease (not on dialysis). [12] [13]
In a typical mammal, a normal average pH level is around 7.4. [147] As in the case of other vertebrates in mammals, the acid-base balance is maintained mainly by the bicarbonate buffer system (HCO 3 − /CO 2), which allows maintaining a constant pH level of the blood and extracellular fluid. [148]
Abnormal kidney function may cause too much or too little urine to be produced. The ability of the kidneys to filter protein is often measured, as urine albumin or urine protein levels, [ 2 ] measured either at a single instance or, because of variation throughout the day, as 24-hour urine tests.
Additionally, patients with aHUS typically present with an abrupt onset of systemic signs and symptoms such as acute kidney failure, [15] hypertension (high blood pressure), [19] myocardial infarction (heart attack), [23] stroke, [14] lung complications, [23] pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas), [21] liver necrosis (death of liver cells ...
Grapes and raisins can cause acute kidney failure in dogs [40] The exact mechanism is unknown, nor is there any means to determine the susceptibility of an individual dog. While as little as one raisin can be toxic to a susceptible 10 pounds (4.5 kg) dog, some other dogs have eaten as much as a pound of grapes or raisins at a time without ill ...
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