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A passive voice construction is a grammatical voice construction that is found in many languages. [1] In a clause with passive voice, the grammatical subject expresses the theme or patient of the main verb – that is, the person or thing that undergoes the action or has its state changed. [2]
For example, the sentence The window was broken may have two different meanings and might be ambiguous: The window was broken, i.e. Someone or something broke the window. (action, event) The window was broken, i.e. The window was not intact. (resultant state) The first sentence is an example of the canonical English passive as described above.
Passive marker is excluded in notional passive because the sentence relies on the hearer's common sense or their knowledge of the world. Thus, this passive voice is expressed implicitly. Furthermore, notional passive sentences can be representing either positive or negative meanings. Here is an example of notional passive:
Passive fluency is often brought about by being raised in one language (which becomes the person's passive language) and being schooled in another language (which becomes the person's native language). [2] [3] Such speakers are especially common in language shift communities where speakers of a declining language do not acquire active competence.
For example, around 10% of the Ainu people who speak the language are considered passive speakers. Passive speakers are often targeted in language revival efforts to increase the number of speakers of a language quickly, as they are likely to gain active and near-native speaking skills more quickly than those with no knowledge of the language.
Passive-aggressive behavior is characterized by a pattern of passive hostility and an avoidance of direct communication. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Inaction where some action is socially customary is a typical passive-aggressive strategy (showing up late for functions, staying silent when a response is expected). [ 2 ]
Passive communicators may become resentful because they feel as if their own needs are not being met and may become confused because they cannot identify their feelings. [9] People on the receiving end of passive communication typically feel frustrated, guilty, and may discount the passive communicator for not knowing what they want. [10]
Spanish is an example of a modern language with a mediopassive voice, normally indicated by the use of a reflexive pronoun. This can variously have a middle-voice meaning (subject acting onto itself, or for its own benefit) or a passive-voice meaning (something acts onto the subject).