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Authoritarian leaders focus on efficiency, potentially seeing other styles, such as a democratic style, as a hindrance to progress. Examples of authoritarian leadership include a police officer directing traffic, a teacher ordering a student to do their assignment, and a supervisor instructing a subordinate to clean a workstation.
In Forsyth, the leadership substitute theory is defined as "a conceptual analysis of the factors that combine to reduce or eliminate the need for a leader." [1] A leader may find that behaviors focusing on nurturing interpersonal relationships, or coordinating tasks and initiating structure, are not required in every situation. A study by Kerr ...
The difference leaders make is not always positive in nature. Leaders sometimes focus on fulfilling their own agendas at the expense of others, including their own followers. Leaders who focus on personal gain by employing stringent and manipulative leadership styles often make a difference, but usually do so through negative means. [173]
Positive thinking and expression is another key concept in leadership within the book. Positivity can rub off on others around the leader, leading to productivity and satisfaction. Balancing positivity with negativity is important, with positivity a tool that leaders can use to get buy-in from staff for projects and programs.
A high LPC score suggests that the leader has a "human relations orientation", while a low LPC score indicates a "task orientation". Fiedler assumes that everybody's least preferred coworker in fact is on average about equally unpleasant, but people who are relationship-motivated tend to describe their least preferred coworkers in a more positive manner, e.g., more pleasant and more efficient.
Reviews of research on these dimensions are described in Stogdill's Handbook of leadership: A survey of theory and research and Littrell's Explicit leader behaviour. According to the findings of these studies, leaders exhibit two types of behaviors to facilitate goal accomplishment: People-oriented (consideration) Task oriented (initiating ...
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The CSES consists of 12 items, and uses a five-point Likert scale (i.e., strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree) to score responses. Sample items are below: [15] "I am confident I get the success I deserve in life." "Sometimes I feel depressed." "Sometimes when I fail I feel worthless." "I am filled with doubts about my ...