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  2. Rutherford scattering experiments - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford_scattering...

    Rutherford scattering or Coulomb scattering is the elastic scattering of charged particles by the Coulomb interaction. The paper also initiated the development of the planetary Rutherford model of the atom and eventually the Bohr model. Rutherford scattering is now exploited by the materials science community in an analytical technique called ...

  3. Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_formulation...

    The sum over r covers other degrees of freedom specific for the field, such as polarization or spin; it usually comes out as a sum from 1 to 2 or from 1 to 3. E p is the relativistic energy for a momentum p quantum of the field, = m 2 c 4 + c 2 p 2 {\textstyle ={\sqrt {m^{2}c^{4}+c^{2}\mathbf {p} ^{2}}}} when the rest mass is m .

  4. Standard Model - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Model

    Y W is the weak hypercharge – the generator of the U(1) group, W → μ is the 3-component SU(2) gauge field, τ L → are the Pauli matrices – infinitesimal generators of the SU(2) group – with subscript L to indicate that they only act on left-chiral fermions, g' and g are the U(1) and SU(2) coupling constants respectively,

  5. List of equations in nuclear and particle physics - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_equations_in...

    Mass number. A = (Relative) atomic mass = Mass number = Sum of protons and neutrons. N = Number of neutrons. Z = Atomic number = Number of protons = Number of electrons. A = Z + N {\displaystyle A=Z+N\,\!} Mass in nuclei. M'nuc = Mass of nucleus, bound nucleons. MΣ = Sum of masses for isolated nucleons.

  6. Energy–momentum relation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy–momentum_relation

    The energy–momentum relation is consistent with the familiar mass–energy relation in both its interpretations: E = mc2 relates total energy E to the (total) relativistic mass m (alternatively denoted mrel or mtot), while E0 = m0c2 relates rest energy E0 to (invariant) rest mass m0. Unlike either of those equations, the energy–momentum ...

  7. Elementary particle - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle

    Elementary particle. In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a subatomic particle that is not composed of other particles. [1] The Standard Model presently recognizes seventeen distinct particles—twelve fermions and five bosons.

  8. Ensemble (mathematical physics) - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensemble_(mathematical...

    e. In physics, specifically statistical mechanics, an ensemble (also statistical ensemble) is an idealization consisting of a large number of virtual copies (sometimes infinitely many) of a system, considered all at once, each of which represents a possible state that the real system might be in. In other words, a statistical ensemble is a set ...

  9. Pendulum - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendulum

    A pendulum is a device made of a weight suspended from a pivot so that it can swing freely. [1] When a pendulum is displaced sideways from its resting, equilibrium position, it is subject to a restoring force due to gravity that will accelerate it back toward the equilibrium position. When released, the restoring force acting on the pendulum's ...