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2. Topsoil - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topsoil

   The United States loses almost 3 tons of topsoil per acre per year. [16] 1 inch (2.5 cm) of topsoil can take between 500 [17] and 1,000 years [18] to form naturally, making the rate of topsoil erosion a serious ecological concern. Based on 2014 trends, the world has about 60 years of topsoil left.

3. Environmental impact of concrete - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of...

   Concrete is used to create hard surfaces which contribute to surface runoff that may cause soil erosion, water pollution and flooding. Conversely, concrete is one of the most powerful tools for proper flood control, by means of damming, diversion, and deflection of flood waters, mud flows, and the like.

4. Hardpan - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardpan

   Hardpan. In soil science, agriculture and gardening, hardpan or soil pan is a dense layer of soil, usually found below the uppermost topsoil layer. [1] There are different types of hardpan, all sharing the general characteristic of being a distinct soil layer that is largely impervious to water. Some hardpans are formed by deposits in the soil ...

5. Structural Soil - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_Soil

   Structural soil is composed of crushed stone (typically limestone or granite) narrowly graded from ¾-1 ½” highly angular with no fines, clay loam which should conform to the USDA soil classification system. The hydrogel is added in a small amount to prevent the separation of the stone and soil during mixing and installation.

6. Cut and fill - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cut_and_fill

   A mass haul diagram where land and rock cuts are hauled to fills Fill construction in 1909 Cut and fill software: view from above. In earthmoving, cut and fill is the process of constructing a railway, road or canal whereby the amount of material from cuts roughly matches the amount of fill needed to make nearby embankments to minimize the amount of construction labor.

7. Irrigation - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation

   Share of agricultural land which is irrigated (2015) Area equipped For irrigation by region In 2000, the total fertile land was 2,788,000 km 2 (689 million acres) and it was equipped with irrigation infrastructure worldwide.