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Estrogen is the predominant sex hormone that slows bone loss (even in men). Both estrogen and testosterone help stimulate bone formation (T, especially at puberty). Testosterone may cause an increase in cortical bone thickness in transgender men (however this does not necessarily translate to a greater mechanical stability).
The contraceptive effects of estrogens are mediated by their antigonadotropic effects and hence by inhibition of ovulation. Most combined oral contraceptives contain ethinylestradiol or its prodrug mestranol as the estrogen component, but a few contain estradiol or estradiol valerate.
Estrogen levels are highest right before the LH surge begins (Figure 1). The short-term drop in steroid hormones between the beginning of the LH surge and the event of ovulation may cause mid-cycle spotting or bleeding. [12] Under the influence of the preovulatory LH surge, the first meiotic division of the oocytes is completed.
The side effects of cyproterone acetate (CPA), a steroidal antiandrogen and progestin, including its frequent and rare side effects, have been studied and characterized.It is generally well-tolerated and has a mild side-effect profile, regardless of dosage, when it used as a progestin or antiandrogen in combination with an estrogen such as ethinylestradiol or estradiol valerate in women.
Side effects of estradiol undecylate in men may include breast tenderness, breast development, feminization, sexual dysfunction, infertility, fluid retention, and cardiovascular issues. [17] Estradiol undecylate is an estrogen and hence is an agonist of the estrogen receptor, the biological target of estrogens like estradiol.
Clomifene citrate (Clomid is a common brand name) is the medication which is most commonly used to treat anovulation. It is a selective estrogen-receptor modulator, affecting the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis to respond as if there was an estrogen deficit in the body, in effect increasing the production of follicle-stimulating hormone.
More recently developed forms of drug delivery are alleged to have increased local effect lower dosing, fewer side effects, and constant rather than cyclical serum hormone levels. [1] [2] Transdermal and vaginal estrogen, in particular, avoid first pass metabolism through the liver. This in turn prevents an increase in clotting factors and ...
Side effects of progestogens include menstrual irregularities, headaches, nausea, breast tenderness, mood changes, acne, increased hair growth, and changes in liver protein production among others. [1] [2] Other side effects of progestogens may include an increased risk of breast cancer, cardiovascular disease, and blood clots. [2]