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In biology, a substitution model, also called models of sequence evolution, are Markov models that describe changes over evolutionary time. These models describe evolutionary changes in macromolecules, such as DNA sequences or protein sequences, that can be represented as sequence of symbols (e.g., A, C, G, and T in the case of DNA or the 20 "standard" proteinogenic amino acids in the case of ...
In biology, a probe is a single strand of DNA or RNA that is complementary to a nucleotide sequence of interest. RNA probes can be designed for any gene or any sequence within a gene for visualization of mRNA , [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] lncRNA [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] and miRNA in tissues and cells.
Short tandem repeat (STR) analysis is a common molecular biology method used to compare allele repeats at specific loci in DNA between two or more samples. A short tandem repeat is a microsatellite with repeat units that are 2 to 7 base pairs in length, with the number of repeats varying among individuals, making STRs effective for human ...
Example of an approximately 40,000 probe spotted oligo microarray with enlarged inset to show detail. Microarray analysis techniques are used in interpreting the data generated from experiments on DNA (Gene chip analysis), RNA, and protein microarrays, which allow researchers to investigate the expression state of a large number of genes – in many cases, an organism's entire genome – in a ...
Hierarchical algorithms find successive clusters using previously established clusters, whereas partitional algorithms determine all clusters at once. Hierarchical algorithms can be agglomerative (bottom-up) or divisive (top-down). Agglomerative algorithms begin with each element as a separate cluster and merge them in successively larger clusters.
Colocalization is used in real-time single-molecule fluorescence microscopy to detect interactions between fluorescently labeled molecular species. In this case, one species (e.g. a DNA molecule) is typically immobilized on the imaging surface, and the other species (e.g. a DNA-binding protein) is supplied to the solution.
If the basis for selection is at an individual level, altruism makes no sense at all. But universal selection at the group level (for the good of the species, not the individual) fails to pass the test of the mathematics of game theory and is certainly not the general case in nature. [30] Yet in many social animals, altruistic behaviour exists.
The Jaccard index formula measures the similarity between two sets based on the number of items that are present in both sets relative to the total number of items. It is commonly used in recommendation systems and social media analysis [ citation needed ] .