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  2. Proca action - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proca_action

    The Proca action is the gauge-fixed version of the Stueckelberg action via the Higgs mechanism. Quantizing the Proca action requires the use of second class constraints . If m ≠ 0 {\displaystyle m\neq 0} , they are not invariant under the gauge transformations of electromagnetism

  3. Quantum gravity - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_gravity

    Quantum gravity (QG) is a field of theoretical physics that seeks to describe gravity according to the principles of quantum mechanics.It deals with environments in which neither gravitational nor quantum effects can be ignored, [1] such as in the vicinity of black holes or similar compact astrophysical objects, as well as in the early stages of the universe moments after the Big Bang.

  4. Graviton - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graviton

    A theory of quantum gravity is needed in order to reconcile these differences. [16] Whether this theory should be background-independent is an open question. The answer to this question will determine the understanding of what specific role gravitation plays in the fate of the universe.

  5. Higgs mechanism - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_mechanism

    In the Standard Model of particle physics, the Higgs mechanism is essential to explain the generation mechanism of the property "mass" for gauge bosons.Without the Higgs mechanism, all bosons (one of the two classes of particles, the other being fermions) would be considered massless, but measurements show that the W +, W −, and Z 0 bosons actually have relatively large masses of around 80 ...

  6. Hierarchy problem - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_problem

    More technically, the question is why the Higgs boson is so much lighter than the Planck mass (or the grand unification energy, or a heavy neutrino mass scale): one would expect that the large quantum contributions to the square of the Higgs boson mass would inevitably make the mass huge, comparable to the scale at which new physics appears ...

  7. M-theory - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-theory

    [a] A quantum theory of gravity is needed in order to reconcile general relativity with the principles of quantum mechanics, [b] but difficulties arise when one attempts to apply the usual prescriptions of quantum theory to the force of gravity. [c] String theory is a theoretical framework that

  8. Search for the Higgs boson - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_for_the_Higgs_boson

    The search for the Higgs boson was a 40-year effort by physicists to prove the existence or non-existence of the Higgs boson, first theorised in the 1960s.The Higgs boson was the last unobserved fundamental particle in the Standard Model of particle physics, and its discovery was described as being the "ultimate verification" of the Standard Model. [1]

  9. Mass generation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_generation

    The problem is complicated because the primary role of mass is to mediate gravitational interaction between bodies, and no theory of gravitational interaction reconciles with the currently popular Standard Model of particle physics. There are two types of mass generation models: gravity-free models and models that involve gravity.