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Solar cells are often classified into so-called generations based on the active (sunlight-absorbing) layers used to produce them, with the most well-established or first-generation solar cells being made of single- or multi-crystalline silicon. This is the dominant technology currently used in most solar PV systems.
Solar-cell efficiencies of laboratory-scale devices using these materials have increased from 3.8% in 2009 [125] to 25.7% in 2021 in single-junction architectures, [126] [127] and, in silicon-based tandem cells, to 29.8%, [126] [128] exceeding the maximum efficiency achieved in single-junction silicon solar cells.
By far, the most prevalent bulk material for solar cells is crystalline silicon (c-Si), also known as "solar grade silicon". [70] Bulk silicon is separated into multiple categories according to crystallinity and crystal size in the resulting ingot, ribbon or wafer. These cells are entirely based around the concept of a p–n junction.
A copper indium gallium selenide solar cell (or CIGS cell, sometimes CI(G)S or CIS cell) is a thin-film solar cell used to convert sunlight into electric power. It is manufactured by depositing a thin layer of copper indium gallium selenide solid solution on glass or plastic backing, along with electrodes on the front and back to collect current.
By the 1960s solar power was the standard for powering space-bound satellites. In the early 1970s, solar cell technology became cheaper and more available ($20/watt). Between 1970 and 1990, solar power became more commercially operated. Railroad crossings, oil rigs, space stations, microwave towers, aircraft, etc.
Solar cells can be thought of as visible light counterparts to radio receivers.A receiver consists of three basic parts; an antenna that converts the radio waves (light) into wave-like motions of electrons in the antenna material, an electronic valve that traps the electrons as they pop off the end of the antenna, and a tuner that amplifies electrons of a selected frequency.
A direct plasmonic solar cell is a solar cell that converts light into electricity using plasmons as the active, photovoltaic material. The active material thickness varies from that of traditional silicon PV (~100-200 μm wafers) , [ 4 ] to less than 2 μm thick, and theoretically could be as thin as 100 nm. [ 5 ]
The largest solar power system flown in space is the electrical system of the International Space Station. To increase the power generated per kilogram, typical spacecraft solar panels use high-cost, high-efficiency, and close-packed rectangular multi-junction solar cells made of gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor materials. [31]