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Insulin glulisine, sold under the brand name Apidra among others, is a rapid-acting modified form of medical insulin used for the treatment of diabetes.It differs from human insulin in that the amino acid asparagine at position B3 is replaced by lysine and the lysine in position B29 is replaced by glutamic acid. [2]
The authors also examined a study utilizing Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase formulated with aluminium hydroxide , which showed improvements in C-peptide levels that were maintained for 5 years. [36] Vitamin D with insulin also demonstrated steady fasting C-peptide levels in the vitamin group, with the same levels declining in the insulin-only group ...
Several other drugs cause diabetes by reversibly reducing insulin secretion, namely statins (which may also damage β cells), the post-transplant immunosuppressants cyclosporin A and tacrolimus, the leukemia drug L-asparaginase, and the antibiotic gatifloxicin. [39] [40]
polyglutamylation, covalent linkage of glutamic acid residues to the N-terminus of tubulin and some other proteins. [12] (See tubulin polyglutamylase) polyglycylation, covalent linkage of one to more than 40 glycine residues to the tubulin C-terminal tail; butyrylation; gamma-carboxylation dependent on Vitamin K [13]
Glutamic acid (symbol Glu or E; [4] the anionic form is known as glutamate) is an α-amino acid that is used by almost all living beings in the biosynthesis of proteins. It is a non-essential nutrient for humans, meaning that the human body can synthesize enough for its use.
Glutamate (the conjugate base of glutamic acid) is abundant in the human body, but particularly in the nervous system and especially prominent in the human brain where it is the body's most prominent neurotransmitter, the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter, and also the precursor for GABA, the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter. [2]
Standard syringe delivery is also an option. It is sold under the name Apidra. The FDA-approved label states that it differs from regular human insulin by its rapid onset and shorter duration of action. [3] The differences are: replacement of B3 asparagine with lysine, replacement of B29 lysine with glutamic acid. [4]
The same review did not find any differences in effects of using these insulin analogues between adults and children. [6] Most oral anti-diabetic agents are contraindicated in pregnancy, in which case insulin is preferred. [7] Insulin is not administered by other routes, although this has been studied.