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The origin of the geodatabase was in the mid-1990s during the emergence of the first spatial databases.One early approach to integrating relational databases and GIS was the use of server middleware, a third-party program that stores the spatial data in database tables in a custom format, and translates it dynamically into a logical model that can be understood by the client software.
ArcGIS Online is a web application allowing sharing and search of geographic information, as well as content published by Esri, ArcGIS users, and other authoritative data providers. It allows users to create and join groups, and control access to items shared publicly or within groups. [53]
In 1989, Esri created the Esri Conservation Program to assist in changing the operations of non-profit organizations for their objectives of nature conservation and social change. Esri’s ArcGIS platform has provided GIS data, analytics software, and training to thousands of non-profit organizations and individual conservation projects since 1993.
GeoJSON [1] is an open standard format designed for representing simple geographical features, along with their non-spatial attributes.It is based on the JSON format.. The features include points (therefore addresses and locations), line strings (therefore streets, highways and boundaries), polygons (countries, provinces, tracts of land), and multi-part collections of these types.
These shapes, together with data attributes that are linked to each shape, create the representation of the geographic data. The term "shapefile" is quite common, but the format consists of a collection of files with a common filename prefix, stored in the same directory. The three mandatory files have filename extensions.shp, .shx, and .dbf.
The binary format is widely used within Esri programs, such as ArcGIS, while the ASCII format is used as an exchange, or export format, due to the simple and portable ASCII file structure. The grid defines geographic space as an array of equally sized square grid points arranged in rows and columns.
Web maps rely entirely on data sources that could potentially be inaccurate, outdated, or corrupted. If the data is not verified and updated regularly, it can affect the reliability of the web maps. [34] Web mapping can also be vulnerable to data tempering, spoofing, or injection attacks, where false or harmful data can be inserted into web maps.
The OpenStreetMap data primitives are stored and processed in different formats. OpenStreetMap server uses PostgreSQL database, with one table for each data primitive, with individual objects stored as rows. [22] [23] The data structure is defined as part of the OSM API. The current version of the API, v0.6, was released in 2009.