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Nitrogen is a liquid under −195.8 °C (77.3 K).. In physics, cryogenics is the production and behaviour of materials at very low temperatures.. The 13th International Institute of Refrigeration's (IIR) International Congress of Refrigeration (held in Washington, DC in 1971) endorsed a universal definition of "cryogenics" and "cryogenic" by accepting a threshold of 120 K (−153 °C) to ...
Because of the extremely low temperatures, diagnosing the chemical status is a major issue when studying low temperature physics and chemistry. [ clarification needed ] The primary techniques in use today are optical - many types of spectroscopy are available, but these require special apparatus with vacuum windows that provide room temperature ...
The following is a timeline of low-temperature technology and cryogenic technology (refrigeration down to close to absolute zero, i.e. –273.15 °C, −459.67 °F or 0 K). [1] It also lists important milestones in thermometry , thermodynamics , statistical physics and calorimetry , that were crucial in development of low temperature systems.
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, entropy, and the physical properties of matter and radiation.
In condensed matter physics, a Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state of matter that is typically formed when a gas of bosons at very low densities is cooled to temperatures very close to absolute zero, i.e., 0 K (−273.15 °C; −459.67 °F).
In physics and materials science, the Curie temperature (T C), or Curie point, is the temperature above which certain materials lose their permanent magnetic properties, which can (in most cases) be replaced by induced magnetism. The Curie temperature is named after Pierre Curie, who showed that magnetism is lost at a critical temperature. [1]
At the 15th International Conference on Low Temperature Physics in 1978 in Grenoble, Hetherington's co-author was exposed: Hetherington had sent some signed copies of his article to friends and colleagues and included the "signature" (paw prints) of his co-author in them. [4]
The λ (lambda) universality class is a group in condensed matter physics. It regroups several systems possessing strong analogies, namely, superfluids, superconductors and smectics (liquid crystals). All these systems are expected to belong to the same universality class for the thermodynamic critical properties of the phase transition.