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These first Heisler–Gröber charts were based upon the first term of the exact Fourier series solution for an infinite plane wall: (,) = = [ + ], [1]where T i is the initial uniform temperature of the slab, T ∞ is the constant environmental temperature imposed at the boundary, x is the location in the plane wall, λ is the root of λ * tan λ = Bi, and α is thermal diffusivity.
A district heating system uses centrally located boilers or water heaters and circulates heat energy to individual customers by circulating hot water or steam. This has the advantage of a central highly efficient energy converter that can use the best available pollution controls, and that is professionally operated.
Diagram of a cross section of a katana, showing the typical arrangement of the harder and softer zones. Differential hardening (also called differential quenching, selective quenching, selective hardening, or local hardening) is most commonly used in bladesmithing to increase the toughness of a blade while keeping very high hardness and strength at the edge.
Buildings are often heated with electric heaters where grid power is available. Electric stoves and ovens use Joule heating to cook food. Soldering irons generate heat to melt conductive solder and make electrical connections. Cartridge heaters are used in various manufacturing processes.
Depending upon the application, a higher temperature may open a contact (as in a heater control) or it may close a contact (as in a refrigerator or air conditioner). The electrical contacts may control the power directly (as in a household iron) or indirectly, switching electrical power through a relay or the supply of natural gas or fuel oil ...
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Current transformers used for protective relaying also have accuracy requirements at overload currents in excess of the normal rating to ensure accurate performance of relays during system faults. A CT with a rating of 2.5L400 specifies with an output from its secondary winding of twenty times its rated secondary current (usually 5 A × 20 ...
Underfloor heating pipes, before they are covered by the screed. Underfloor heating and cooling is a form of central heating and cooling that achieves indoor climate control for thermal comfort using hydronic or electrical heating elements embedded in a floor.