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Prior to 1945 most studies of leadership sought to identify the individual traits of effective leaders. Trait theories of leadership were the first to attempt a systematic approach of studying leadership. However, these studies yielded disappointing results when no set of traits were found that explained effective leadership.
Over the years, many reviewers of trait leadership theory have commented that this approach to leadership is "too simplistic", [41] and "futile". [42] Additionally, scholars have noted that trait leadership theory usually only focuses on how leader effectiveness is perceived by followers [23] rather than a leader's actual effectiveness. [8]
In reviewing the older leadership theories, Scouller highlighted certain limitations in relation to the development of a leader's skill and effectiveness: [3] Trait theory: As Stogdill (1948) [4] and Buchanan & Huczynski (1997) had previously pointed out, this approach has failed to develop a universally agreed list of leadership qualities and "successful leaders seem to defy classification ...
The Integrated Psychological Theory of leadership attempts to integrate the strengths of the older theories (i.e. traits, behavioral/styles, situational and functional) while addressing their limitations, introducing a new element – the need for leaders to develop their leadership presence, attitude toward others, and behavioral flexibility ...
Examples of authoritarian leadership include a police officer directing traffic, a teacher ordering a student to do their assignment, and a supervisor instructing a subordinate to clean a workstation. All of these positions require a distinct set of characteristics that give the leader the position to get things in order or to get a point across.
In the 1940s, research in leadership began straying away from identifying individual leadership traits, to analyzing the effects of certain leadership behaviors – predominantly task-oriented and relationship-oriented leadership. [4] The table below compares task-oriented and relationship-oriented leadership styles side-by-side:
The Washington Post describes The Leadership Challenge as a "business-meets-self help canon." [1] Carmine Gallo and Tom Gerace have cited The Leadership Challenge as an important book in developing their leadership skills. [5] [16] Verne Harnish described the book as "one of the five most important leadership books ever written." [17]
These groups closely mirror the global traits identified in the Five-Factor Model of Personality Big Five personality traits. The 21 primary scales represent a finer grained assessment of the 5 constructs. For example, Achievement Orientation contains the following primary scales: Ambition, Initiative, Flexibility, Energy, and Leadership. [1]
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