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Birching in a women's prison, US (c. 1890) 1839 caricature by George Cruikshank of a school flogging Edmund Bonner punishing a heretic in Foxe's Book of Martyrs (1563) It was the most common school and judicial punishment in Europe up to the mid-19th century, when caning gained increasing popularity.
Injury in plants is damage caused by other organisms or by the non-living (abiotic) environment to plants. Animals that commonly cause injury to plants include insects, mites, nematodes, and herbivorous mammals; damage may also be caused by plant pathogens including fungi, bacteria, and viruses. Abiotic factors that can damage plants include ...
A birch is a thin-leaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus Betula (/ ˈ b ɛ tj ʊ l ə /), [2] in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams.It is closely related to the beech-oak family Fagaceae.
Adults of some species also have urticating scales, and some species shed some of their urticating hairs as defense for their pupae and eggs.. The urticating setae, or spines, can cause irritation when they break off and lodge in the skin of larger animals or humans.
Abiotic stress affects animals, but plants are especially dependent, if not solely dependent, on environmental factors, so it is particularly constraining. Abiotic stress is the most harmful factor concerning the growth and productivity of crops worldwide. [ 3 ]
Birch includes animals, plants, fungi, and microbes among critical interactions with humans: [9] plants too are incredibly important determinants: for mobile hunter-gatherers, they might dictate a seasonal move; for sedentary agriculturalists, the reliability of your crop yields means the difference between survival and extinction. [9]
By Brad Brooks (Reuters) -A leading conservation research group found that 40% of animals and 34% of plants in the United States are at risk of extinction, while 41% of ecosystems are facing collapse.
Hypersensitive response (HR) is a mechanism used by plants to prevent the spread of infection by microbial pathogens.HR is characterized by the rapid death of cells in the local region surrounding an infection and it serves to restrict the growth and spread of pathogens to other parts of the plant.