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O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Edwin Hubble", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews; American Physical Society's Hubble Bio; Edwin Powell Hubble — The man who discovered the cosmos Archived May 31, 2009, at the Wayback Machine; The problem of the expanding universe, 1942 Edwin Hubble
The earliest and most direct observational evidence of the validity of the theory are the expansion of the universe according to Hubble's law (as indicated by the redshifts of galaxies), discovery and measurement of the cosmic microwave background and the relative abundances of light elements produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis (BBN).
The Einstein equations in their simplest form model either an expanding or contracting universe, so Einstein introduced the constant to counter expansion or contraction and lead to a static and flat universe. [31] After Hubble's discovery that the universe was, in fact, expanding, Einstein called his faulty assumption that the universe is ...
1995 – Hubble Deep Field survey of galaxies in field 144 arc seconds across. 1998 – The 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey maps the large-scale structure in a section of the Universe close to the Milky Way. 1998 – The Hubble Deep Field South is compiled. 1998 – Discovery of accelerating universe. [13]
1998 – The first complete Einstein ring, B1938+666, discovered using the Hubble Space Telescope and MERLIN. [227] [228] 1998-99 – Scientists discover that the expansion of the Universe is accelerating. [229] [230] 1999 – Alessandra Buonanno and Thibault Damour introduce the effective one-body formalism. [231]
The life principle: There is an underlying principle that constrains the Universe to evolve towards life and mind. The self-explaining universe: A closed explanatory or causal loop: "perhaps only universes with a capacity for consciousness can exist". This is Wheeler's participatory anthropic principle (PAP). The fake universe: Humans live ...
Later in the 1920s, Edwin Hubble showed that Andromeda was far outside the Milky Way by measuring Cepheid variable stars, proving that Curtis was correct. [6] It is now known that the Milky Way is only one of as many as an estimated 200 billion (2 × 10 11) [7] to 2 trillion (2 × 10 12) or more galaxies in the observable Universe.
Interpreting Edwin Hubble's discovery of a linear relation between the redshifts of the galaxies and their radial distance [2] as evidence for an expanding universe, Einstein abandoned his earlier static model of the universe and embraced the dynamic cosmology of Alexander Friedmann.